The Effects of Media Propaganda

AbstractThe media serve the agenda of six corporations that owns them. Just about any source of information that you see, hear or read is controlled by the agenda of the six corporations. They control the country with media propaganda agenda using the illusion of choice. The media has influenced us, economically, sociologically, and psychologically.The media function with the intent to shape our thinking into believing what they wanted us to believe. Many of the news coverage in the media is due to the fact that it align with the media agenda. This would paper allowed us to see different areas we have been shaped by the media and the strategy they used to achieve their objective. The media propaganda is key major part of media operation and is used to accommodate as well protect the agenda of the elite.IntroductionThe American culture of today is communicated through media. Media is the most powerful and influential force in the country. The media are powerful agents of socialization and they set the standard that majority follow. The power giving to American media has allowed them to be very effective using propaganda as strategy, the media tend to say they serve to relieve social conflicts into minimum. We clearly see that the media promote social conflicts by separating class. The image that media has created in the mind of masses has economical, psychological and sociological impact the masses.The intent of the media is to satisfy their own agenda, not to inform and entertain. They been very successful using this strategy, more of their agenda less of the masses interest. Richard Cohen once said â€Å"We are going to impose our agenda on the coverage by dealing with issues and subjects that we choose to deal with.†Propaganda is form of communication that attempt to influence the attitude of the community towards some cause or position by presenting only one side of an argument. Propaganda is widely spread throughout the media to create chosen result in audience attitudes. Media main objective is to influence the attitude of the people. The audio visual media such as television, radio, and sound motion pictures means of communication are available to the psychological operator.Their effectiveness is based on seeing and having the persuasive message. These medium provide an excellent means of persuasive message. Television projects the sense of sight, adding the element of motion, like motion picture, it combines sight, sound and motion. Television is an immediate effect, it places the viewer is two locations simultaneously, creating the illusion of participating in a distant event. The transmission of T.V overcomes illiteracy, audience need not be able to read.The Psychological media propaganda advantage helps the media through television bring people in global separate locations together by exposing then visually to the same ideas and concepts. Psychologist Hadley Cantril and Hazel Gaudet, led us to some valuable discovery afte r October 30 1938 when radio broadcast war of the world? As a result of this broadcast there was a national panic for all to see the effect of media propaganda. While many panic during the broadcast, some remain calm and collected. The people that were not panic displayed what psychologist called a critical faculty (pg589). The lack critical faculty was the lack of the ability to create a framework in which to check if information were true.The people that lacked critical faculty are the low income bracket because of limited sources of information. A psychology study conducted by Cantril, along with Gaudet, H, the model which accounted for how movies influenced children. The study of media effect has spawned many functional theories today such as Agenda-setting theory, cultural imperialism theory. The powerful influence of media is revealed through agenda setting the ability to tell the masses what issues are important. Many have been concerned about the psychological effect of medi a as far back as 1922. Media has the power to presents images to public through propaganda. Which McCombs and Shaw investigation of  presidential campaigns in 1968, 1972, and 1976. In the findings, they concluded that the mass media psychological a significant influence on what voters considered to the major issues of the campaign.The agenda- setting allowed the media not to reflect reality, they filter and shape it. They also concentrate on few issues and subjects leads the public to view those issues, as more significant than other issues. The time frame is the most important aspect of this phenomenon. Bernard Cohen (1963) psychology effect of media, they may not be successful in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about. Lastly, the western nations dominate the media around the world.The western nations used cultural imperialism to impose their western views through media on third world countries. They simply shape and control third world destroying their native cultures through the effect of media propaganda. There are several different theory that provide evidence of this. In as much as the third world countries continue to broadcast western civilization’s programs, then these countries will always believe they should act, think and live as westerners. Clearly it is widely seen how media propaganda has impacted our lives psychologically.Over the past generation, it has become very clear that the U.S mass media is a major influential voice in the U.S society. Edward S Herman once said media operate in systematic propaganda model. The media serve to mobilize support for the special interests that dominate National, State and Private activity. Propaganda is not the only function of the media, however it is a very essential aspect of their overall service. Certainly in a capitalist society and major conflicts of class interest. The media function to serve the large propaganda requirements of the elite. The media have consistently promote the agenda of the elite, particularly in U.S.First thing to consider in the economic effect of media propaganda is the ownership of the media is among a handful the largest profit corporations in the world. Many of these corporations have a comfortable size of interest in U, S economy. Objectively, their needs to remain profitable corporation severely influence the need operations and major content of media broadcast. Subjectively, the self- interest of the handful corporations as become the operation of the media. Second advertising, has colonized the U.S media and is also  responsible for most of their generating income.Third media are drawn into symbolic relationship with powerful sources of information by economic necessity. Media depend upon news provided them by corporation and government sources and due to this fact they are pressured to follow corporate agenda. Whenever the wealthy right-wingers were dissatisfied with poli tical media coverage. They make sure that they send a clear message of their displeased. The ideology of double standard of the media propaganda work effectively.For example the media treatment of murder coverage or report is based on if it is a worthy victim or unworthy victim, which majorly depended on their relationship to the elite interests. The news coverage of Vietnam War and the development it appear as if the media were opposed to the war. Contrary to the image the media portray, they continued to present the War in manner consistent with the interest of wealthy till the very end. This provide a good example on how media propaganda operates to maintain economic agenda. For news to be worthy of coverage it would have to meet the elite requirement and it must be something the media can sale.It very certain that all these facts have major impacts on how media deliver news to the general public, the economic effect of media propaganda determines what event or incident gets medi a coverage. It is a system that continues to develop a systematic approach of how to protect the interest of the elite without making it obvious to the public. We believe that the media exist to inform and entertain, however the reason for the program will watched on T, V is to keep us interested till the next paid commercial. The more will considered the economic effect of media propaganda the more will discovered that its centered around the agenda of wealthy folks. The agenda of the elite is what is propagated by the media, the generally public received it as the truth follow. The Sociology perspective of the media is also an important aspect to consider.If the powerful are able to fix the premises of discourse, to decide what the general populace is allowed to see, hear, and think about and to â€Å"manage† public opinion by regular propaganda of their own strike in an issue or immobilized by effective propaganda the media will serve elite interest uncompromisingly (Herma n,1996). It very essential to look different sociology perspective of media propaganda and how they influence our  society. Functionalist believe that media propaganda contributed to the benefit of the society. Charlie Wright (1975) was able to identify ways media contributed to society. He said media coordinate and correlate information that is valuable to the culture. People gather in groups to watch, they talk about what they see, and they share the sense that are watching something special (Schudson 1986).Functionalist view media propaganda as an important function in society. It is the media to influence social uniformity on bigger scale. Media propaganda has been accused of creating dysfunction. Postman (1989) argued the media culture undermines the educational system. Conflict perspective claim that corporation use media propaganda to satisfy their own agenda. Sitcoms and News coverage are not created to inform and entertain, however they are to keep our interest to the nex t paid commercial. This perspective view media as conduit for social coercion. The owners of media use programing and advertising to influence certain and targeted social class.Whatever agenda or trend they introduced through media is the public mimicked, the media maintain dominance and remained major influential force in the nation due to the fact that they were use propaganda very effectively. From the conflict perspective, modern day media are instruments of social control,(Sullivan 2007) while interactionist and functionalist agree that media propaganda is necessary, conflict perspective view media propaganda as necessary evil. The media propaganda is used as an instrument of social control and also an effective way to carry out their agenda.Interactionist perspective, media propaganda is used to define and shape our definitions of any given situation. This perception of reality seems to come together as daily value and cultural change. The definition of American in the 50s is definitely different what we see expect today. The way the media portray family is the set standard that majority of society would consider acceptable. The effect of the media propaganda is powerful that social acceptance is solely dictated and depended on what the media approve. The symbols that the media present to us will represent what is acceptable and proper. So anyone that does not identify with the symbols are considered to be an outcast.The media propaganda create a perfect society illusion that the masses strive to emulate. You have athletes, celebrities and models promoting clothing, brand that vast majority cannot afford. To consider to be part of the elite class  society you have to identify with those things. Many people have lost their own identity trying to meet up with media expectation of them. Many also get into huge debt due to the fact that the image of happiness the media portray is things you can afford to buy with good credit. The interaction between the ma sses and the media is symbolic. They serve their own agenda, whenever the public interact with the media is to acquire information or to be entertained, however whenever the media interact with the public is serve their own agenda, which is the agenda of the elite groups of individual that runs them.The agenda of the elite is to impose their â€Å"Will† on the masses and make money of it. CEO of Walt Disney, Michael Eisner once said â€Å"We have no obligation to make history, we have no obligation to make art. We have no obligation to make a statement. To make money is our only objective. The media interaction with general public is symbolic because it revolved around money, money is the symbol that connect the media with the public.ConclusionThe media control the country using propaganda and illusion of choice to achieve their agenda. The 6 media giants control 90% of what we read, watch, listen to and anything outside these sources is consider not to be credible. The info rmation that we received on daily basis are controlled by six individual who run these companies. The media form and shape the society culture, reality and acceptance. They not only function to promote the agenda of the elite, they impose the culture accepted by the elite as set standard for all. The instrument that the media use to control society is propaganda.The media used the illusion that they exist to inform and entertain, however they existed to serve the agenda of the elite. They use different avenue to capture and change the public minds in order to achieve their own objectives. Our culture in America today is what the media say it is, Social conflicts are promoted by the media, separating public into different classes and holding one particular groups as the set standard of the rest. Finally the new coverage or any information we gathered through media is the media’s imposed agenda.

MW corporation

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Journal - Essay Example Greatness indeed has much more to do with spirit, with how a human being chooses to react - especially in tough situation when the temptation is always there to find an easy way out. Oftentimes, we don't have a choice how our fates determine our individual destinies. But we all are given, a certain gift that sets us apart to rise above our situations. Braddock had a talent not just for boxing, but for fighting in true form, that is fighting a fair game. True success matters only because we choose to keep promises to the people we love, rather because of outward indications such as money or achievements to show the world that we are not losers. In the movie, Braddock was motivated to win because he made a promise to his son that the family will stay together no matter how the Depression in the 1930s hit them. And isn't only because we love the people in our lives which make it easier for us to be humble To try to become humble on one's own is a tough job - precisely because it takes other people for one to achieve true humility. The announcement of Hillary Clinton that she will contest the presidential elections in 2008 did not really come as a surprise to the world. After all, she has been at it for the past years. Only that the fact that she will actually gun for the top post and even win it, is such an exciting and tantalizing prospect for the world, it's almost unbelievable. We ask ourselves what could be her motivations. What does she want She's after power - so what's new She wants to show the husband that she is better than him - what better way to punish him and one that would confirm our worst expectations of her. She stayed with him and did not divorce him long after her husband weathered his second term post-Monica because she wants to get the ultimate revenge. After all, men are expected all the time to go after power, that for them power is a legitimate goal. We hold on to the view women are not competitive, or rather should not show competitiveness in such a public manner - the most public manner - in the field of politics. We ask these questions for a woman derided not only for her ambitions, but for showing such grit and unusual determination when most would have slinked into a permanent retreat after a battlefield strewn with losses, shame and the relentless drive of a society to make her to what she in fact is not both personally and career -wise. Who is she, and what is she in fact If Hilary Clinton indeed becomes President of the United States two years from now - she will not only make history to become for the first woman to become the most powerful person on earth - but perhaps who succeeded on her own terms, winning on both counts - personally and career-wise. Maybe she really loves Bill after all. Journal entry: On "A Wrinkle in Time" There are books which we love as children. Once we gotten over them, we go on to "adult books". And then there are books that captivate us at a time when Santa Clause has not yet left the world of magic and faith. And which, even after years have elapsed, we can still go back to find that the magic has not flown off the window. One such book is a "Wrinkle in Time" by Madeleine L'Engle, a book first published in 1962 and continues to enchant the public with its rare combination of being a fairy tale, religious allegory and a brilliant scientific foray into the rarified

Snow Flower and the Secret Fan Essay Example for Free

Snow Flower and the Secret Fan Essay Laotong: type of relationship within the Chinese culture that bonded two girls together for eternity as kindred sisters. Lisa See’s novel, â€Å"Snow Flower and the Secret Fan†, takes us through the journey of 19th- century Chine in which girls had their feet found, meaning crushing their bones to the size of lily flowers. This ritual was considered beauty for a women and a thrilling sensation for men to look at. Staring the binding at the age of six and excruciating painful process that took two years to complete, Lily tells her story as an eighty year old woman. Lily was the second daughter to a poor farming family, but later encounters the privilege to be married out to a wealthy family in the village of Tongkou. Lily was married out to a wealthy noble man, whom she might have loved. But Lily had no bigger love other than her laotong, sworn sister, Snow Flower. The two were matched together at the age of seven, when together they promised each other, through a contract that they would always be laotong. Both endured the agony of footbinding, married out and shared their most inner thoughts and loving ways of motherhood. Lisa See writes delicately, telling the life of these two remarkable girls on their journey to pleasing their husbands, and mother in laws. Love and Friendship keep Snow Flower’s and Lily’s spirits alive when they are not together. Once married out, they didn’t see each other as often as they would have loved to, but their thoughts were jotted down in a silk fan, which included their whole journey together written in nu shu-secret writing for women. Lily and Snow Flower become â€Å"old same†, perfect match. Even though Snow Flower came from a higher family , Snow Flower was married out to a butcher, her first son was weak, and her second passed away. Her husband beats her and her mother in law was cruel. Hoping sympathy from her laotong, Snow Flower gets criticism and â€Å"just keep trying† in return. As Snow Flower arouses new friends, Lily finds this as betrayal; therefore Lily stops any communication with Snow Flower, leaving her devastated, and empty. Even though Lily and Snow Flower experienced happiness, tragedies, and different events, Lily felt betrayed by her laotong so Lily keeps her distance and stops writing back. As Snow Flower’s death approaches Lily goes to Snow Flower and rejoins her, later discovering that Snow Flower did not become a sworn sister, like Lily thought, therefore there was no betrayal. As and eighty year old, Lily remembers Snow Flower. Trying to condemn her mistake Lily watches over Snow Flower’s children, as much as she can like she promised Snow Flower on her death bed. Lily calls out to Snow Flower even after she is dead. â€Å"But if the dead continue to have the needs and desire of the living, then I’m reaching out to Snow Flower†¦. Please hear my words. Please forgive me. † Snow Flower and the Secret Fan keeps the story plot alive, maintaining the theme of love and friendship, always feeling like you are reading Lily’s personal diary. Reading Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, Lisa See does a remarkable job of taking you back in time to your childhood friends. I wonder if Lisa See wrote Snow Flower and the Secret Fan thinking of a close friend as well. Also, I would have loved if somewhere in the book, an entry or a piece of writing from Snow Flower was discovered so we can learn more about her own inner thoughts. In my opinion, this book is full of perfection. Throughout the book I recalled my sister. The bond that we share was very similar to the one of these â€Å"mandarin ducks†. What if Snow Flower’s father had not taken the pipe? Would she and Lily still be matched as soul sisters? Lisa See’s style of writing is a master piece in this book. Like The Washington Post Book World reviewed, â€Å" A triumph on every level, a beautiful, heartbreaking story. Snow Flower and the Secret Fan fascinated me. I recommend this book for the soul that understands what it feels like to love someone as much as you love yourself. Filled with different emotions that make you feel and experience the different obstacles that are brought upon Lily and Snow Flower. It is defiantly a love story. However, it is more than that. It involves friendship, kindness, understanding, and tragedy all in one read. â€Å"Snow Flower and the Secret Fan is fascinating. †- The Indianapolis Star.

Characteristics of problems

Characteristics of problems Characteristics of Problems Determining the type of problem to be solved is particularly difficult. From the scientific point of view it has not been treated sufficiently yet.   It is, nevertheless, of fundamental importance because it covers the whole field of creativity, and the problem solver(s) heuristic behavior is contingent on the type of problem.   What is a problem?   This question was asked and answered by Karl Duncker (1945).   Duncker, who was a Gestalt psychologist, defined a problem in these words: â€Å"A problem arises when a living organism has a goal but does not know how this goal is to be reached.†Ã‚   This definition is, no doubt, very useful, because creativity tasks and activities always strive to address a problem.   Yet, Dunckers definition and formulation poses these caveats:   It is necessary to distinguish between a task and a problem.   It is the subjects level of domain knowledge, including his ability to find pertinent knowledge, if necessary, that makes the difference between the two. A task set by a researcher or experimenter may be a problem to certain subjects and no problem to others.  Ã‚   A problem may vanish or be resolved if the subject changes his goal.   A problem does not exist de facto, unless the subject observes discrepancies between his current situation and the goals he pursues. Reitman (1965) proposed that problems be viewed as three-component entities, having an initial state, a final (goal) state, and a set of processes that facilitate reaching the goal, starting from the initial state.   Minski (1961) proposed a distinction between two types of problems, those that according to the nature of the conditions of acceptability of solutions are either well defined or ill-defined.   A problem satisfying Reitmans conditions (Reitman, 1965) is a so-called well-defined problem: it can be solved by applying a systematic procedure that makes it possible to decide whether a proposed solution is correct or not.   It means that it is totally decidable: all pertinent solutions can be evaluated strictly using one binary variable: right or wrong.   The solution can thus be described as an all-or-nothing phenomenon.   There are no intermediate solutions between the functional and non-functional ones.   In general terms, any tests for which there exists a rigorous method of comparison between what is proposed and what is required is a well-defined problem. Examples of well-defined problems are board games, problems in mathematics, or problems in logic.   They may be very difficult to resolve, nevertheless.   Taking mans limited resources, psychologists face the task of explaining how human beings manage to solve problems in chess, mathematics or geometry within reasonable time.   Ill-defined problems are those that are not well-defined.   They result in a multitude of solutions that cannot be classified by using a binary truth-value, but by using a relative qualitative scale.   The response to a requirement thus allows grades, the determination of which is left to the referees.   The majority of problems occurring in everyday life are ill-defined problems: the improvement on an object or an apparatus, a new use of what already is known, the search for a sales idea or a marketing idea, etc. Ill-defined problems arise when some components of the problems statement, in the sense of Reitman, are unspecified, or are vague or fuzzy.   The definedness of problems varies in degree (Reitman, 1965, Ch. 5).   For instance, ‘take a little flower and bake bread for these people, which is vague in terms of the quantity of flower and the number of people, but specifies clearly the method: bake.   Another statement may run like this: ‘Let us overcome the current economic crisis.   This statement does not specify the method: what should be done to overcome the crisis?   ‘Do not just hang around, maximize something is an exhortation taken from a cartoon, in which both the initial state, the method and the goal are shrouded in a mental fog.   Ill-defined problems are more common than are well-defined problems, but it is all the more difficult to explain how to tackle them. It is worth noting that Minskis postulate does not necessarily cover the distinction between problem solving and creativity. For instance, the discovery of a new algorithm, or a new combination of known algorithms, is a creative act. But well-defined problems in the sense of Minsky may lead to an opposition between algorithmic procedures and inferential procedures. As for the ill-defined problems, Reitman (1964) proposed a typology of six classes of problems comprising the transformation or generation of states, objects, or collections of objects.   This taxonomy is not presented as a universal tool covering the whole field of creative situations, but simply as a general structure making it possible to collect the largest number possible of the creative situations.   This attempt at systemization has mainly a descriptive value, but it is not unlikely that it could also be used for deducing hypotheses related to the behavior of effectual solutions. Reitmans work is based on the introduction of the following three concepts: let A be an initial state or object (one which is expected to undergo transformation, modification, complementing, improvement, etc.) and let B be a final state or object (the solution to be obtained, elimination of problem).   Let the symbol à ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã…’ denote a process, program, or sequence of operations.   It is then possible to represent a large number of problematic situations parting from these three symbols by representing them by a general vector [A, B, à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬â„¢].   Using these three concepts, six types of poorly defined problems can be distinguished. Type I.   The initial and terminal states A and B are well specified: the relevant data are known and the requirements to be satisfied are explained precisely.   The problem then consists in discovering the process à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ that makes it possible to pass from the well-specified state A to a well-specified state B.   For instance: how can a given function be incorporated in a specific device?   This type seems to cover a large class of problem situations. Type II.   The terminal state B is less precisely specified than in the previous type, while A is left entirely at the discretion of the experimenter.   In fact, nothing is said about the state, object or assembly of objects from which to part.  Ã‚   The initial material is largely undetermined and admits only one constraint to aid in constituting the one possible solution.   For instance: what should be done to make traveling by train more pleasurable? Here, obviously, the current state represents some level of train travel comfort or pleasure, and this should be increased.   But what exactly is to be achieved is an open question. Type III.   The initial state A consists in this case of an assembly of constituent parts each of which represents a concrete entity, while B represents a state or object to be achieved which is defined vaguely and is characterized by the fact that one or several of constituent parts of A have lost their separate identities after reaching B.   Reitman cites as an example Napoleons cook who was charged with the task to â€Å"make a good dish† B to celebrate the victory at Marengo using only available ingredients A.   This type is undoubtedly less general than the preceding ones.   Type IV.   A and B are presented as consisting of sub-components and are rather poorly defined.   This type differs from type II in that in the latter case there are no restrictions imposed on search, different analogous paths, and different associative paths the exploration of which can be relatively fruitful.   In type IV it is not like that.  Ã‚   The distinction between sub-components provides constraints within which the problem solution has to take place.   The research is, in other words, more strictly restrained than it is in the problems of type II. Type V.  Ã‚   The initial state A is given by reference to a well defined object, the final state B is given by a set of similarities and dissimilarities with respect to A.   An example given by Reitman to illustrate this type is the following: manufacturer ÃŽÂ ± of some equipment encounters a serious competition from ÃŽÂ ²-companys product.   The first company, ÃŽÂ ±, decides to change the design of the product in point to offer a price that is lower for a comparable quality than what its competitor ÃŽÂ ² asks.   The task thus does not necessarily require an entirely new manufacturing process, because the added cost of the new process would not help to slash the price according to original estimates.   Besides, the modification must be implemented fast because the competing product already is in the market while ÃŽÂ ±-companys sales decrease with each passing day.   The exigencies of this example illustrate the general type V product as a new device that m ust be functionally similar to the old version but must be cheaper. Type VI.   In this case, the final state B is well specified while the initial state A remains essentially empty, unstructured and largely undetermined.   Characteristic examples cited by Reitman comprise: to explain a new phenomenon, discover an alibi for a criminal deed, etc.   This type differs from type II in the degree of precision of the task.   It is thus possible to distinguish among six categories of poorly defined problems resorting to almost formal properties of their application.   A research activity the results of which would show that these categories incite heuristically different behavior on the part of individuals and groups still has to be accomplished.   A relevant taxonomy establishes first some ordering, i.e. introduces some logic in the pertinent knowledge field.   For this purpose the taxonomy distributes the phenomena or the entities considered according to their relevant characteristics, with no ambiguity involved.   It appears that, in general, each taxonomy displays at least two different utility values: First of all, the taxonomy presents a reference value that provides a framework for a certain subset of the universe.   The information already available about the elements of this subset thus cease to be fragmented and simply accumulated: in the continuation they are ordered with respect to one another.   They can be integrated and complemented.   Fragmented knowledge thus becomes systematic. This knowledge also represents an â€Å"operational† or heuristic value of the taxonomy in point. This value becomes apparent when the taxonomy leads to empirical research in order to validate its structure, its principle and its extent, or to uncover which variables of the taxonomy can be expected and unified.   In the case of problem solution and creativity research, one can try to establish some correspondence between certain types of tasks with certain behavioral phenomena, particularly those of psycholinguistic nature.   The first problem differentiation might take into consideration the different objective properties of problems: The problem is algorithmic: it can be resolved using an ordered sequence of specific operations.   It allows, in this sense, a truly coordinated division of labor, and is particularly suitable for groups with the centralized communication structure.   The problem is inferential: it can be visualized by means of trees, but the process of generalization of the trees cannot be decomposed into concatenated elementary operations.   A homogeneous structure is, however, more appropriate.   It can be seen that groups facing a specific situation adopt spontaneously the optimum organization to respond to this situation. Most authors, however, have resorted to local dichotomies based on a multitude of imprecise criteria.   The straightforward problem typologies are the following: Verbal and non-verbal tasks.   Verbal tasks are supposed to mobilize important cultural experience and imply the use of specific functions or hypothetic factors.   Non-verbal tasks are symbolic, or in other ways dependent on non-verbal perceptions. Intellectual and manipulation-dependent tasks.   In intellectual tasks, the principal operator is the brain.   Manipulation-dependent problems require a coordination of the brain and muscular factors.   Unique-solution and multiple-solutions tasks.   Then there are problems having a unique solution and problems having multiple solutions.   The totality of distinctions pertinent to a particular solution domain cannot be generalized, because their underlying criteria are too coarse and do not allow more than just a very summary control of the situation.   Shaws dimensional analysis In an attempt to present various aspects of group tasks in a systematic manner, Shaw (1963) collected a very eclectic set of 104 statements mostly taken from experimental literature.   The statements relate to both ill-defined and well-defined problems, to verbally and non-verbally formulated tasks, etc.   These various statements were evaluated according to six a priori defined dimensions, which can be visualized as continuously varying intervals in which each task occupies a point.   The six dimensions are characterized in the following manner: Requirements of cooperation.   This dimension permits to define the degree to which it is required that members of the group act in a coordinated manner to complete the task successfully.   It is thus a measure of dependence between the goal and the coordinated activity of the subjects.   Verifiability of the decision.   It is the degree to which the â€Å"rightness† or adequacy of the solution can be proved, either by reference to an authority, or by logical procedures (usually a mathematical proof), or by feedback (for instance by examining the consequences of the decision taken). Difficulty.   This is defined by Shaw abstractly as the quantity of effort necessary for executing the task.   Specifically, an indicator of difficulty can be the time required for solution, the number of errors made, etc. Clarity of purpose.   This denotes the degree of precision with which the requirements of the task are presented to members of the group, and how the members perceive the requirements. Multiplicity of approaches to the goal.   This dimension expresses the more or less great possibility to resolve the problem by various procedures.   It is thus a matter of possible paths to the solution, i.e. of the number of alternative solutions. Relationship between mental and motor requirements.   A task that only requires the implementation of intellectual activities will be among the strongest on this dimension.   Conversely, tasks requiring only motor abilities will be among the weakest.   A task requiring both intellectual and motor activities occupies an intermediate position between the two extremes. Intrinsic interest.   Problems are not equally attractive, i.e. they do not mobilize the same motivation.   This dimension is thus assigned the degree to which a particular task appears interesting to the subjects. Operational requirements.   This dimension was introduced to evaluate the number of different kinds of operations, knowledge or abilities required for the completion of the task. Familiarity within the population.   Individuals might have had a previous experience of the task in point, either direct or by means of an analogous task.   This dimension thus evaluates the relative â€Å"rareness† of a class of problems to a population. Multiplicity of solutions.   It is the number of different correct solutions for the problem in point.   That number can in general be evaluated exactly in a well-defined problem, but not if the estimate is very intuitive. This family of dimensions is intended to cover the maximum of traits occurring in every heuristic situation.   Certain dimensions thus relate to formal properties of the task, for instance numbers 2, 5, or 10, while others, e.g. numbers 7 and 9 refer direct to the consequences of applying a particular semantics (second level of determination).   Forty-nine referees, mostly graduate students of psychology, got the task of distributing the 104 sample tasks according to the 10 dimensions shown above.   Eight positions or degrees ordered by their magnitude were defined.   The judgments were consistent, except for the dimension â€Å"clarity of purpose†. With these data, Shaw got two factor analyses that resulted in disclosing five significant factors for task analysis: Difficulty, (factor I), the quantity of required effort displays a close relationship to the number of operations, knowledge, and required abilities for solving the problem.   The forth dimension, the â€Å"clarity of purpose† is equally an important aspect of difficulty: the less clear the goal is, the more difficult is the task judged to be.   Multiplicity of solutions (factor II) is a complex dimension that relates both to the number of acceptable solutions, to the diversity of paths leading to the solutions, and to the verifiability of a solution.   Shaw thinks that the essential aspect is the number of solutions, while the other two merely are its consequences.   While there are several solutions available, there also are several ways how to reach them. Proving the adequacy of each solution rigorously is hardly possible. Cooperation requirements (factor III) correspond exactly to the dimension of the same name.   The degree of completing a task successfully implies a coordinated action on the part of group members. The relationship between intellectual requirements motor requirements (factor IV) constitutes no doubt an independent dimension.   But it only shows a very weak correlation with the familiarity with the task within the population.   Familiarity in the population is considered a separate dimension for the same reason.   Nevertheless, it is necessary to point out that the familiarity seems relatively irrelevant, at least under the particular conditions of this work, where the majority of the tasks were somehow familiar to the subjects. Intrinsic interest (factor V), which corresponds to the intensity of motivation and the attraction exerted by the problem on the group members, too, is a dimension permeated with factor II. The first three of the six dimensions obtained finally seem to be both the most important and the least ambiguous ones.   It is of course possible, as Shaw himself notes, that there are other dimensions, equally important, which continued research could bring forth.   This first attempt will make it possible largely to control the principal components of the situation that comes into being as a problem to be solved is given to the subjects.   This is the only condition under which accumulation of experimental data in this field can be transformed into scientific knowledge. Categorization by Roby and Lanzetta Roby and Lanzetta (1958) proposed a model intended to define and highlight the most important characteristics of a group task.   For this purpose, they distinguish four sets of events occurring in the functioning of any group task system: a. A set Tiof task input data.   Here belong, for instance, the formulation of the problem to be solved and of the material it implies. b. A correlative set Giof initial activities of the group.   These comprise, among others, waiting times, observation, data recording, communication associated with input variables, etc. c. A set Goof outputs produced by the group.   In the creative process these comprise the traces of the heuristic process and solution suggestions. d. A set Toof environmental changes following from the groups activities. Roby and Lanzetta define three general types of properties: Descriptive aspects, including the qualitative nature of various events, their number, and metric properties. Distribution of the events in the space or by relation to other events. Functional aspects of events, i.e. their temporal occurrence as a function of foregoing events (sequential analysis). Each set of events, Ti, Gi, Go and To, can be studied and related to according to these three types of properties.   In theory at least, it is possible to characterize any group task, and in particular any creative situation, using a double-entry table for 12 cases. This is the formal equipment of the descriptive system of group tasks proposed by Roby and Lanzetta.   In an abstract analysis, however, this representation does not make the understanding of a truly psychological meaning of a specific task possible.   This remark led the authors to propose a complementary notion of â€Å"critical exigencies†.   This concept was introduced to cover the fact that each task requires certain behavior on the part of the group to be correctly executed, and calls for certain specific types of activities to be carried out.   The implementation of these requirements should thus help to reduce the discontinuity mentioned between the structural properties of the task and the psychological or psychosocial phenomena generated by its handling.   It is a different manner of contrasting the general and the particular.   In a way, this is what was above called the â€Å"second level of determination†. Roby and Lanzettas intention was not to put forward a theory permitting to characterize the problems rigorously, but rather to present a table for the analysis of systems of group tasks.   Their framework thus permits theoretically to classify any task parting from the values relevant to the task in the 12 boxes of the analysis table, but it does not make it possible to classify the types of tasks using a specific corpus of formal properties.   Thus, Roby and Lanzetta did not forge a typological tool, but, rather, a descriptive tool the general purpose of which is found precisely in the fact that the tool is deemed able to adapt itself to any task.   The goal of their work was not to distribute the generalized variable â€Å"task structure† on an arbitrary scale, but rather to find a set of invariant characteristics that would make it possible to situate the various problems that appear in the life of a working group.   Creative problems constitute in this context evid ently merely a special case.   It follows that the effort to determine the â€Å"invariants† of the analysis is probably of utmost importance and should complement any typological effort. Finally, an adequate taxonomy of poorly defined problems must comprise a meta-linguistic analysis of their formulation in the natural language: it must be possible to establish a rigorous correspondence between a formal type and the multitude of its verbal expressions or concretizations and, in parallel, part from a specific semantics to reach a logical class it illustrates.   Roqutte (1975) sketches the first attempt in this respect. Psychologists studying the ways people solve problem have adopted a reasonable strategy.   They study how people handle seemingly well-defined problems, and then apply theprocedure to the study of ill-defined tasks.   In some instances shortcuts to solving an ill-defined problem are possible: seek a well-defined version of the same problem and try to solve it, or find a new definition of the problem.   Defininition or interpretation of the problem is as important in tackling well-defined tasks as it is in working with ill-defined tasks.   Adversary and non-adversary problems This is another distinction between problems.   An adversary problem is one in which the problem solver is competing with a thinking opponent, or a seemingly thinking opponent, like a chess-playing computer.   In non-adversary problems the battle goes between a thinking problem solver and inert problem features.   The latter may be symbolic or real, but they do not react to what the problem solver does, in order to â€Å"defeat† him, and they do not care about what the human problem solver feels.   Semantically rich and semantically impoverished problems This distinction seems to be increasing in importance.   It was elaborated by Chi and his coworkers (1982).   A problem is semantically rich for the problem solver who brings a significant relevant knowledge to the problem.   The opposite is true of semantically impoverished problems.   As an example, consider a problem given to two problem solvers.   For the domain expert it is a semantically rich problem, for the novice it is a semantically impoverished problem.   This distinction thus expresses the problem-solvers view of the problem situation, or Shaws familiarity within the population. Most puzzles, IQ-tests, and the like, are semantically impoverished for most subjects.   Much of psychological research has been focused on solving semantically impoverished puzzles of the non-adversary type.   The semantically rich non-adversary tasks are increasing in importance.   This category comprises most tasks in computer programming and in physics.  Ã‚  Ã‚  

A Midwifery Community Profile Health And Social Care Essay

A Midwifery Community Profile Health And Social Care Essay This community profile is based on an area in the outskirts of Glasgow and the objective is to identify the current provisions of maternity care and other health care services, which cater for the needs of the local population in the physical, emotional, intellectual and social needs for groups in the community, additionally, commenting on any deficits in care. Health promotions have been identified as resources that will enhance the health of this specific communitys health and are included in the profile. Also, the role and contribution of the midwifery services is explored, along with other primary healthcare providers and how they use teamwork to deliver healthcare to the community. Professional and ethical issues have been discussed throughout the profile and as all aspects of health are unrelated and interdependent, (Ewles Simnett, 1992: Ch1 p7), a holistic and professional view has been taken to evaluate the needs, and health services of this community. The RCM believes that truly woman-centered care must encompass midwifery-led care of normal pregnancy, birth and the postnatal period and services that are planned and delivered close to women and the communities in which they live or work, (NHS Evidence, 2008). This statement shows the importance of a community midwife, as their role is to not only provide the clinical skills, but also be accessible for support and advice at the time of much adjustment for a woman. If the midwife can become a part of the womans community, getting to know the woman and her family more personally, learning to understand their lives and the nature of the life around them, she will be able to be more responsive and understanding to them as individuals, and move away from the depersonalization of the institution. Individual societies each have their own specific needs and characteristics, and it is vital for a midwife to know her area well in order to respond appropriately, along with poverty levels and racial mixes (Fraser and Cooper 2009, p. 43). Community-based care can be in the home or in community hospitals and centers, but is a process that emphasizes consultation, collaboration, and referral to the professionals who are most appropriately prepared to meet the women ¹s needs (Walsh, 2001). It is also vital that women are educated and women should be given appropriate, accurate and unbiased information based on research that would allow and encourage them to make informed choices in relation to their care (Baston Green, 2002). Women from different backgrounds, and areas can often have very contrasting education levels and as a midwife, it is essential to know your neighborhood well in order to take these into consideration when communicating with a woman. The area chosen for this community profile is in the south west of Glasgow, which will now be referred to as area X, with a population of 10,024 (RDC Registrar Generals Census, 2001). Table 1: Age Distribution Area X Indicator Number Percentage Population aged 0-15 2,400 23.9% Population ages 16-64 6,463 64.5% Population aged 65+ 1161 11.6% The majority of the population is in the age range 16-64 years and the relevant health care services in the community for this group are the antenatal clinics, family planning and screening clinics. Graph 1: Hospital admissions for heart disease Area X With respect to the social and economical characteristics of the area, this graph shows the volume of people admitted to hospital for heart disease in Area X. Heart disease is more accurately described now as a disease of social and economical disadvantage and poverty (Blackburn, 1991:Ch2 p36) and the major risk factors contributing to heart disease are smoking and diet. These lifestyle factors also may echo a life associated with lower social class (Bond Bond, 1994: Ch 4 p 70). Nearly half of the houses in Area X are owner occupied, and that amount can be split into two; ex-council houses and private housing estates. The other half are tenanted homes, renting either from the council or private renting. Almost a quarter of all homes in the area suffer from overcrowding. These statistics indicate there are many occupants of tenement flats and these tend to be low-income families who have little or no choice about the type or standard of accommodation they live in (Blackburn, 1991). Higher income groups tend to live in the private housing sector, and have choices in the location and type of heating which are important influences affecting the health of families (Lowry, 1991). Table 2: Housing Area X Indicator Number Percentage Owner Occupiers 1,851 41.1% Overcrowding 1,000 22.2% (RDC Registrar Generals Census, 2001). Glasgow is home to the most workless households in the UK, according to the Office for National Statistics, (ONS). Figures measured in 2007 indicate 29% of households in the Glasgow City council area had members of working age who were unemployed (BBC, 2009). Area X also has a high percentage of people unemployed according to Scotlands Census from 2001, with both those who are unemployed and claiming and those who are economically inactive. Long-term unemployment can be a self-perpetuating cycle that leads to low morale and poor health (NHS: Greater Glasgow, 2005). Other effects of unemployment are the increased rates of depression, particularly in the young-who form most of the group who have never worked (BMJ, 2009). It is obvious from this that unemployment can alter both our mental and physical state, and in Area X almost 40% of the population of children live in a workless household, which would also have an influence on these childrens quality of life. Table 3: Unemployment Area X Indicator Number Percentage Unemployed Claimants 360 5.8% Economically inactive 3,128 43.6% Children in workless households 1.010 38.9% (RDC Registrar Generals Census, 2001). The role and contribution of midwifery services in Area X are vital in supporting childbearing women and their families, through a holistic approach. It is very important that midwives had a good understanding of social, cultural and context differences so that they can respond to the womens needs in a variety of care settings This is attained by an integrated midwifery service being part of an expert multidisciplinary team, allowing midwives to draw on other organizations to meet the holistic needs of individual women and providing a complete range of services. (Fraser Cooper 2009, p. 7). Midwives in Area X use the local hospital, and local health centers for antenatal and postnatal clinics, as well as parentcraft classes, working along side hospital doctors and GPs. The GP usually confirms the pregnancy and thereafter, an appointment is given to the woman to be introduced to the community midwife for a Booking visit, as these midwives often better understand social situations through working in the area. The women are generally referred, by the GP, to either the local hospital or a nearby health clinic to meet one of the midwives who work in Area X. These midwives work in teams of around 5, covering 2 or 3 certain postcodes in Glasgow each, and each team named after a colour to make it simple for women and their families to understand which group of community midwives they will be receiving care from, e.g. The Blue Team. This system also works well as it allows a certain degree of continuity as each woman will only be seen by the community midwives in her allocated t eam. Continuity of carer and care has been a key policy principle since the early 1990s. Research evidence demonstrates that women value continuity of carer in the antenatal and postnatal period (Waldenstrom Turnbull 1998, Homer et al 2000, Page 2009). Working in Area X requires a high level of continuity in care as it has a lower social class and experiences problems related to pregnancy such as 49.9% of the population of Area X are smokers. Other statistics for Area X include 38.6% of women smoking during pregnancy, a total of 160 women over a 3 year total. It is well known by midwives and obstetricians that smoking in pregnancy is associated with well recognized health problems and as midwives usually have the most professional contact with pregnant women, they have an important role in providing this advice and support (Buckley, 2000). Glasgow has a very well-organised network of smoke-free pharmacy services who provide NRT for smoking cessation services. They monitor carbon monoxide levels on a weekly basis and only dispense NRT if the breath test is negative (Mcgowan et al, 2008). Smoking cessation services are provided for Area X by specialist midwives, allowing continuity during pregnancy. These midwives speak to the woman and let them know what is available, without pushing them into quitting, and find out what their thoughts and feelings are, focusing on how good it is when women want to stop smoking. The chief executive of ASH Scotland, Sheila Duffy, stated in 2010 life expectancy, health problems, smoking rates, and deaths fro m smoking are all markedly different between Scotlands richest and poorest communities. Research in Scotland has found that smoking is a greater source of health inequality than social class. This shows clearly that deprived areas such as Area X are at the greatest risk of being affected by smoking issues. 43% of adults who live in deprived areas smoke, compared with 9% in the least deprived areas and this is shown in the prevalence of tobacco related diseases and deaths. 32% of deaths in Scotlands most deprived areas are due to smoking compared to 15% in the most affluent (Duffy, 2010). This is also reflected in the rates of newborn deaths as the death rate for newborn babies is more than twice as high in deprived towns compared with affluent areas and the high rate of deaths in poor areas was linked to premature delivery or birth defects (BBC, 2010). This leads on to why so many pregnant women smoke in deprived areas, such as Area X. Smokers typically report that cigarettes calm t hem down when they are stressed and help them to concentrate and work more effectively (Jarvis, 2004), and this prospect could be highly desirable to those suffering from stress and anxiety due to financial problems and other socio-economic factors such as low employment, high crime rates, poor housing and poor health care. Graph 2: Nicotine intake and social deprivation. Data from health survey for England (1993, 1994, 1996) As reported in the recent Midwifery Practice Audit 1996-1997 (END, 1997), midwives are the lead professionals in providing care for childbearing women. However, midwives need to acknowledge that other health-care professionals also contribute to each womans experience. Midwives work together with other professionals within the primary health-care team, providing integrated approaches to care delivery. Midwives have to use their own skills and expertise with the knowledge of how to access the expertise of other practitioners when required, allowing the women to receive holistic care (Houston S M, 1998). In the recent programme of work Midwifery 2020, a statement was made that women should be cared for in a multi-agency and multi-professional environment and NHS providers should have a collaborative working relationship with all other agencies based on mutual trust and respect to ensure that women and families receive optimum support. They should also ensure clear understanding of role s and facilitate effective communication between professionals and other agencies (Midwifery 2020, 2010). The first booking visit for antenatal care is important and a successful visit lays the foundation for building that special relationship between mother and the midwifery services on which so much depends (Cronk Flint, 1989:ch2 p9). The visit enables the midwife to establish any physical, psychological or social needs that will form the basis of the womans plan of care. In area X, the booking visit also allows midwives to inform the woman about the Healthy Start programme. Healthy Start is the Department of Health Welfare Food Scheme that helps pregnant women and eligible families, with children under 5, buy milk, fresh fruit and vegetables, infant feeding formula milk, and receive free vitamin supplements (NHSGCC, 2010). This is a clear example of how health services have integrated to allow women all the benefits they are entitled to, helping them achieve the best possible ex perience throughout their pregnancy. As the pregnancy progresses, parentcraft education classes are offered to prepare women for the birth experience (Jamieson, 1993) and raise awareness to the advantages of breastfeeding, giving support to mothers who choose to breastfeed. Area X presents midwives with many teenage pregnancies and antenatal services should be flexible enough to meet the needs of all women, bearing in mind the needs of those from the most disadvantaged, vulnerable and less articulate groups in society are of equal if not more importance (Lewis, 2001). As Area X is a deprived area, this contributes greatly to the teenage pregnancy statistics and throughout the developed world, teenage pregnancy is more common among young people who have been disadvantaged in childhood and have poor expectations of education or the job market. Teenagers seem to be more likely to have sexual intercourse if they come from the lower social classes or unhappy home backgrounds. Another explanation may be that many young people lack accurate knowledge about contraception, STIs, what to expect in relationships and what it will mean to be a parent (Allen, 2002). There are also serious psychological concerns related to teenage pregnancy, which the midwives in Area X must address while working with these girls. The teenage years are a time of much change and difficulty without the added stress and anxiety of a pregnancy, birth and finally motherhood. It is a midwifes duty to give the necessary advice and proper holistic care, hopefully improving the service provision and having a good obstetric outcome. Comprehensive holistic antenatal care programmes specifically for pregnant teenagers have been found to be effective in reducing poor maternal outcomes (Fullerton, 1997). For teenage pregnancies in Area X, there is a specific midwife who will be contacted at the booking visit and will be a support network for girls 18 and under, available at all times for advice, encouraging continuity and individualized, spec ific care for young mums. To conclude, through writing this community profile on Area X, I have discovered how difficult it is to work as a midwife in the community, especially in a deprived area such as Area X. From reading a large variety of articles on the psychological and social effects of poverty on pregnancy, there is much evidence that poverty has a significant effect on midwifery practice, and these women need the best care plan possible to ensure a positive experience. By having an awareness of the restrictions poverty can inflict on pregnancy and childbirth, the midwife can adapt her skills and provide care accordingly, keeping in mind aspects such as smoking during pregnancy and teenage pregnancies (Salmon et al, 1998). There is a reoccurring trend throughout this community profile confirming the link between lower socio-economic status and adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as prematurity, and the midwife is ideally placed to help identify and manage stresses, as it has been a very important conseq uence for the health and wellbeing of both mother and infant (Alderdice Lynn, 2009). Working in Area X on clinical placement has given me an insight into the importance of individualized care, as every woman is in a different situation and therefore has different needs, socially and psychologically. Some women may need more specialized care and support than others, however they are all of equal importance. Investigating the role of the midwifery service in Glasgow has opened my eyes to how both the midwives and the primary health care team deals with problems, and how without integrating health services, it would not be possible to give women the best possible care. Only by working as an integrated team with users will health inequalities be reduced, social exclusion be limited and public health become relevant and cost-effective (Henderson, 2002). The importance of involving women in decisions about their care has long been part of the everyday practice of midwives (Proctor, 1998) , and the importance of communication has been highlighted to me clearly throughout this community study, and through my placement, forcing me to realize how important it is for a midwife to fulfill her role. References: NHS Health Scotland (2004) Greater Shawlands; a community health and well-being profile [Online] Available at: http://www.scotpho.org.uk/nmsruntime/saveasdialog.asp?lID=604sID=1268 [Accessed 16 December 2010] NHS Greater Glasgow, South East Glasgow Community Health and Care Partnership (2006) Health Improvement Plan 2006-07 Draft [Online] Available at: http://library.nhsggc.org.uk/mediaAssets/library/health_improvement_plan_2006-07_south_east_glasgow.pdf [Accessed 20 December 2010] NHS Evidence National Library of Guidelines (2008) Women centered care (position statement) [Online] Available at: http://www.library.nhs.uk/GUIDELINESFINDER/ViewResource.aspx?resID=30150 [Accessed 2 January 2011] Griffin K, Maternity, Gateshead Health NHS (2009) Pregnancy: Weight Matters [Online] Available at: http://www.gatesheadhealth.nhs.uk/patients-visitors/patient-leaflets/documents/Obstetrics/IL206%20Pregnancy%20Weight%20Matters.pdf [Accessed 2 January 2011] Fraser D M Cooper M A eds (2009) Myles Textbook for Midwives 15th ed. Churchill Livingstone, London Nursing Midwifery Council (2008) The code in full [Online] Available at: http://www.nmc-uk.org/aArticle.aspx?ArticleID=3056 [Accessed 2 January 2011] Walsh L V (2001) Midwifery: Community-Based Care During the Childbearing Year Saunders, USA Baston H A Green J M (2002) Community Midwives role perceptions British Journal of Midwifery, Vol 10, No1 Community Councils Glasgow, Arden, Carnwadric, Kennishead Old Darnley (2008) Local history and Geography [Online] Available at: http://www.communitycouncilsglasgow.org.uk/dack/PlainText/PlainText.aspx?SectionId=4bf12ad1-a06e-4f7f-9a24-1f7fc2522504 [Accessed 3 January 2011] Bond J Bond S (1994) Sociology and Health Care (2nd ed), Ch 4, p 70, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh Cronk M Flint C (1989) Community Midwifery: A Practical Guide, Ch2, p 9, Heinemann Nursing, Oxford Ewles L Simnett I (1992) Promoting Health: A Practical Guide, (2nd ed), Scutari Press, Middlesex Fuller G, Award Finalist: NHS Greater Glasgow (2005) Complementary Medicine [Online] Available at: http://www.cipd.co.uk/NR/rdonlyres/FAD0C2B3-5901-4AE5-A1B9-4524C770521B/0/pmawrd05nhs.pdf [Accessed 2 January 2011] BBC News Scotland (2009) Glasgow has the worst UK unemployment [Online] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/8000029.stm [Accessed 3 January 2011] Lowry S (1991) Housing and Health, British Medical Journal, London Blackburn C (1991) Poverty and Health, Ch 2, pp32-36, Open University Press, Buckingham Dorling D, BMJ (2009) Unemployment and Health [Online] Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/338/bmj.b829.full [Accessed 3 January 2011] Houston S M (1999) Multi-professional education programmes in midwifery British Journal of Midwifery, Vol 7 No 1, p 32 NHS Scotland, Midwifery 2020 (2010) Core role of the Midwife Workstream [Online] Available at: http://www.midwifery2020.org/documents/2020/Core_Role.pdf [Accessed 4 January 2011] Homer, C et al. (2000) What do women feel about community based antenatal care? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 24, pp. 590-595. Buckley E R (2000) Helping pregnant women stop smoking British Journal of Midwifery, Vol 8 No 10, pp. 101-103 Mcgowan A, Hamilton S, Barnett D, Nsofor M, Proudfoot J Tappin J M (2008) Breathe: The stop smoking service for pregnant women in Glasgow Midwifery 26, e1-e31, Elsevier, Glasgow ASH Scotland, Duffy S (2010) Deaths from smoking in deprived areas double that of affluent [Online] Available at: http://www.ashscotland.org.uk/media/recent-press-releases/deaths-from-smoking-double-in-deprived-areas [Accessed 4 January 2011] BBC News Health (2010) Newborn deaths higher in deprived areas [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-11899900 [Accessed 4 January 2011] Jarvis M J (2004) Why people smoke British Medical Journal, Vol 328 No 7434 Lewis, G (ed) (2001) Why Mothers Die 1997- 1999: the fifth report of the confidential enquiries into maternal deaths in the United Kingdom. London: RCOD Press Fullerton D (1997) Preventing and reducing the adverse effects of teenage pregnancy. Health Visit 70(5): 197-9 Allen E J (2002) Aims and associations of reducing teenage pregnancy British Journal of Midwfery, Vol 11 No 6, pp.366-367 Salmon D Powell J (1998) Caring for women in poverty: a critical review British Journal of Midwifery, Vol 6 No 2, pp. 108-111 Alderdice F Lynn F (2009) Stress in pregnancy: identifying and supporting women British Joural of Midwifery, Vol 17 No9, p 553 Proctor S (1998) Womens reactions to their experience of maternity care British Journal of Midwifery, Vol 7 No 8, p 492 Henderson C (2002) The public health role of a midwife British Journal of Midwifery, Vol 10 No 5, p 268

How The Brain Works Essay -- Anatomy, Nervous System

Current research shows that mental events cause physical events, and scientists believe examining single nerves is the key to understanding how the brain works as a complete unit. Understanding the brain at the nerve cell level will allow scientists to understand how human consciousness works (Blakeslee, 1992). Furthermore, the brain's thalamus is identified as the possible sensory connector because it fires 40 impulses per second that sweep through the entire brain (Blakeslee, 1995a). These findings are a serious implication to Dualism because it states the mind is not physical. If the mind is not physical, it cannot affect the physical body, so the Dualist theory of two-sided interactions between the body and mind are false. The aforementioned argument is supported by many other scientific facts and objections against Dualism. For example, phantom pain is a well-known phenomenon in medicine. When people lose a limb, they will often feel painful spasms in parts that no longer exist. Although neuroscience is still developing, scientists assume sensory conflict is responsible for this phenomenon (Blakeslee, 1995b). The brain remembers the nerves going to the missing limb and their previous function, so it can issue orders through those nerves. However, the nerves will not get feedback from the muscles in the non-existent limb, so the brain stops the movement forcibly (Blakeslee, 1995b). Over time, the brain makes new nervous pathways and adapts to the new geography of the body (Blakeslee, 1995b), so the person's perception changes and phantom pain no longer persists. Phantom pain is only one example of how the brain is linked to the consciousness. Every perception in the environment and every physical action causes changes in t... ...p paralysis prevents the body from moving while the mind dreams. In conclusion, the mind is non-physical, but there must be a common link between the body and mind because several examples show their interaction. Perhaps the image of the body and the mind as entities responsible for our ability to act in the external and the internal world (Ryle, 1949) is correct, but it is missing the brain as the link. The brain is obviously the meeting point which perceives sensations from both the external and the internal world. The mind functions in the internal world and provides thoughts to the brain. The body functions in the external world and provides sensory input to the brain. The brain combines both inputs and distributes them among the body and the mind. This is how the body and mind are able to interact even though the mind is immaterial and the body is material.

The Prejudiced Message of Merchant of Venice :: Free Merchant of Venice Essays

The Prejudiced Message of Merchant of Venice The Merchant of Venice portrays a prejudiced message. This is first evident in Act one when Shylock openly says to himself, "I hate him because he is a Christian....May my people be cursed if I forgive him!" All throughout the book the Christians are battling with the Jews and neither of them will listen to the other because their hearts are filled with intense prejudice. Antonio proves that he is unwilling to change his feelings toward Shylock when he says, "I'm likely to call you names again, spit on you again, and shun you again." They don't seem to realize that their prejudiced attitudes could get someone (Antonio) killed. There are different times during the play that Shylock could be viewed as a villain and other times that he could be seen as a sympathetic character. When he doesn't allow his daughter, Jessica to marry Lorenzo just because he's a Christian, that's when we start to think that Shylock just isn't a very nice guy. But he was also the target of a lot of prejudice himself. Antonio didn't like him because he was a Jew, and he let Shylock know his feelings. However, two wrongs don't make a right. In other words, just because Antonio hated Shylock and spit in his face, there's no reason why Shylock couldn't just show Antonio love or just stay away from him. Shylock chose to get revenge, so he probably would be viewed as a villain. Prejudice doesn't get anyone anywhere.

Antony a better Leader than Caesar in Shakespeares Antony and Cleopatr

Antony a better Leader than Caesar in Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra: In Shakespeare?s play 'Antony and Cleopatra' Caesar, while he displays remarkable tactical skills, is calculating and cold hearted. Antony on the other hand embodies many admirable qualities and emotions which make him the greater of the two. Firstly I will look at Caesar?s military victories before examining Antony?s great human qualities. Looking at Caesar, he is highly successful in his military battles due to his great organisation skills and strategic planning. Caesar values organisation since he receives hourly reports on how matters are abroad (Act I Scene 4 lines 34-36) and keeps detailed accounts of his battles. His logical thought also makes him so successful: ?Strike not by land, keep whole, provoke not battle, Till we have done at sea? (Act III Scene 8 lines 3-4) This strategic plan allows Caesar to defeat Antony. Duty is of unmatched importance to Caesar. Caesar condemns Antony for seeking pleasure before duty and he says of himself: ?Doubt not, sir, I knew it for my bond? (Act I Scene 4 lines 84-85) So the basis of Caesar?s abundant military victories, also against Antony, are his logical tactics and his sense of duty. However, Caesar is so determined to succeed and so power hungry that he is willing to hurt and manipulate other people in order to be successful. Caesar is calculating in that he uses Lepidus to defeat Pompey yet then sees to it that Lepdius is deposed as a triumvir so that he can gain more power. Another example of Caesar?s deviousness is: ? Plant those that have revolted in the van, That Antony may seem to spend his fury Upon himself.? (Act IV Scene 6 lines 9-11) Caesar intentionally places... ...flees the battle, he does not blame Cleopatra but takes responsibility for his own actions and is very ashamed of them: ?I have fled myself, and have instructed cowards To run and show their shoulders.? (Act III Scene 11 lines 7-8) It is in particular this characteristic which makes Antony greater than Caesar. Though it would be easy to make another person the culprit, Antony always carries the burden of the blame himself and is truly remorseful of his actions. In conclusion, Caesar?s arrogant, calculating, unemotional character is opposed to Antony?s forgiving, generous, responsible one. Though Caesar is a great military leader, his success is achieved through deliberate cold-hearted scheming and manipulation of others while Antony displays true nobility through his incomparably great human qualities. Thus, in our minds, Antony is the greater of the two.

Deception Point Page 9

Now she had gotten as close as anyone could get. Gabrielle recalled the night she had spent with Sexton in his plush office, and she cringed, trying to block out the embarrassing images in her mind. What was I thinking? She knew she should have resisted, but somehow she'd found herself unable. Sedgewick Sexton had been an idol of hers for so long†¦ and to think he wanted her. The limousine hit a bump, jarring her thoughts back to the present. â€Å"You okay?† Sexton was watching her now. Gabrielle flashed a hurried smile. â€Å"Fine.† â€Å"You aren't still thinking about that drudge, are you?† She shrugged. â€Å"I'm still a little worried, yeah.† â€Å"Forget it. The drudge was the best thing that ever happened to my campaign.† A drudge, Gabrielle had learned the hard way, was the political equivalent of leaking information that your rival used a penis enlarger or subscribed to Stud Muffin magazine. Drudging wasn't a glamorous tactic, but when it paid off, it paid off big. Of course, when it backfired†¦ And backfire, it had. For the White House. About a month ago, the President's campaign staff, unsettled by the slipping polls, had decided to get aggressive and leak a story they suspected to be true – that Senator Sexton had engaged in an affair with his personal assistant, Gabrielle Ashe. Unfortunately for the White House, there was no hard evidence. Senator Sexton, a firm believer in the best defense is a strong offense, seized the moment for attack. He called a national press conference to proclaim his innocence and outrage. I cannot believe, he said, gazing into the cameras with pain in his eyes, that the President would dishonor my wife's memory with these malicious lies. Senator Sexton's performance on TV was so convincing that Gabrielle herself practically believed they had not slept together. Seeing how effortlessly he lied, Gabrielle realized that Senator Sexton was indeed a dangerous man. Lately, although Gabrielle was certain she was backing the strongest horse in this presidential race, she had begun to question whether she was backing the best horse. Working closely with Sexton had been an eye-opening experience – akin to a behind-the-scenes tour of Universal Studios, where one's childlike awe over the movies is sullied by the realization that Hollywood isn't magic after all. Although Gabrielle's faith in Sexton's message remained intact, she was beginning to question the messenger. 10 â€Å"What I am about to tell you, Rachel,† the President said, â€Å"is classified ‘UMBRA.' Well beyond your current security clearance.† Rachel felt the walls of Air Force One closing in around her. The President had flown her to Wallops Island, invited her onboard his plane, poured her coffee, told her flat out that he intended to use her to political advantage against her own father, and now he was announcing he intended to give her classified information illegally. However affable Zach Herney appeared on the surface, Rachel Sexton had just learned something important about him. This man took control in a hurry. â€Å"Two weeks ago,† the President said, locking eyes with her, â€Å"NASA made a discovery.† The words hung a moment in the air before Rachel could process them. A NASA discovery? Recent intelligence updates had suggested nothing out of the ordinary going on with the space agency. Of course, these days a â€Å"NASA discovery† usually meant realizing they'd grossly under budgeted some new project. â€Å"Before we talk further,† the President said, â€Å"I'd like to know if you share your father's cynicism over space exploration.† Rachel resented the comment. â€Å"I certainly hope you didn't call me here to ask me to control my father's rants against NASA.† He laughed. â€Å"Hell, no. I've been around the Senate long enough to know that nobody controls Sedgewick Sexton.† â€Å"My father is an opportunist, sir. Most successful politicians are. And unfortunately NASA has made itself an opportunity.† The recent string of NASA errors had been so unbearable that one either had to laugh or cry – satellites that disintegrated in orbit, space probes that never called home, the International Space Station budget rising tenfold and member countries bailing out like rats from a sinking ship. Billions were being lost, and Senator Sexton was riding it like a wave – a wave that seemed destined to carry him to the shores of 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue. â€Å"I will admit,† the President continued, â€Å"NASA has been a walking disaster area lately. Every time I turn around, they give me yet another reason to slash their funding.† Rachel saw her opening for a foothold and took it. â€Å"And yet, sir, didn't I just read that you bailed them out last week with another three million in emergency funding to keep them solvent?† The President chuckled. â€Å"Your father was pleased with that one, wasn't he?† â€Å"Nothing like sending ammunition to your executioner.† â€Å"Did you hear him on Nightline? ‘Zach Herney is a space addict, and the taxpayers are funding his habit.'† â€Å"But you keep proving him right, sir.† Herney nodded. â€Å"I make it no secret that I'm an enormous fan of NASA. I always have been. I was a child of the space race – Sputnik, John Glenn, Apollo 11 – and I have never hesitated to express my feelings of admiration and national pride for our space program. In my mind, the men and women of NASA are history's modern pioneers. They attempt the impossible, accept failure, and then go back to the drawing board while the rest of us stand back and criticize.† Rachel remained silent, sensing that just below the President's calm exterior was an indignant rage over her father's endless anti-NASA rhetoric. Rachel found herself wondering what the hell NASA had found. The President was certainly taking his time coming to the point. â€Å"Today,† Herney said, his voice intensifying, â€Å"I intend to change your entire opinion of NASA.† Rachel eyed him with uncertainty. â€Å"You have my vote already, sir. You may want to concentrate on the rest of the country.† â€Å"I intend to.† He took a sip of coffee and smiled. â€Å"And I'm going to ask you to help me.† Pausing, he leaned toward her. â€Å"In a most unusual way.† Rachel could now feel Zach Herney scrutinizing her every move, like a hunter trying to gauge if his prey intended to run or fight. Unfortunately, Rachel saw nowhere to run. â€Å"I assume,† the President said, pouring them both more coffee, â€Å"that you're aware of a NASA project called EOS?† Rachel nodded. â€Å"Earth Observation System. I believe my father has mentioned EOS once or twice.† The weak attempt at sarcasm drew a frown from the President. The truth was that Rachel's father mentioned the Earth Observation System every chance he got. It was one of NASA's most controversial big-ticket ventures – a constellation of five satellites designed to look down from space and analyze the planet's environment: ozone depletion, polar ice melt, global warming, rainforest defoliation. The intent was to provide environmentalists with never before seen macroscopic data so that they could plan better for earth's future. Unfortunately, the EOS project had been wrought with failure. Like so many NASA projects of late, it had been plagued with costly overruns right from the start. And Zach Herney was the one taking the heat. He had used the support of the environmental lobby to push the $1.4 billion EOS project through Congress. But rather than delivering the promised contributions to global earth science, EOS had spiraled quickly into a costly nightmare of failed launches, computer malfunctions, and somber NASA press conferences. The only smiling face lately was that of Senator Sexton, who was smugly reminding voters just how much of their money the President had spent on EOS and just how lukewarm the returns had been.